End-to-end Valuation for Koyambedu wholesale market and transit hub establishments — with a documented, audit-ready process
for Koyambedu wholesalers managing dense daily inventory turnover and inter-state compliance footprints — transparent scope, no surprises, and a filed acknowledgement back to you. Call 9566-068-468.
Rule 21 of the Foreign Exchange Management (Non-debt Instruments) Rules 2019 read with Schedule I prescribes pricing — for issue or transfer of shares of an Indian company to a non-resident, the price must not be less than the FMV per any internationally accepted pricing methodology (DCF / NAV / comparable companies); for transfer from non-resident to resident, the price must not exceed FMV. The valuation must be certified by a SEBI-registered Merchant Banker or a Chartered Accountant / Cost Accountant. For listed shares, SEBI ICDR / SAST pricing applies.
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Expert Valuation in Koyambedu — qualified professionals, 15+ years experience, zero-penalty track record.
Intangibles valued under ICVS 302 — brand by Relief from Royalty (royalty rate × revenue × (1 - tax) discounted), customer list by MPEEM with attrition and contributory asset charges, technology by replacement cost, goodwill as residual under Ind AS 103 PPA.
DCF report drafted to survive Section 56(2)(viib) scrutiny — methodology and inputs as on the valuation date, not actuals deviation. Cinestaan Entertainment (Delhi HC 2021) and Rameshwaram Strong Glass (ITAT Jaipur) authorities cited. Reasonableness of projections defended through industry benchmarks.
Every Koyambedu valuation under the Companies Act is signed by an IBBI Registered Valuer in the Securities or Financial Assets class with current ROV registration. Rule 8 Companies (Registered Valuers) Rules 2017 contents — purpose, intended user, sources, procedures, premise, basis, approach, method, conclusion, caveats — are fully covered.
For unquoted equity FMV, all five Rule 11UA(2) methods are evaluated and the chosen method is documented with a method-selection memo. For non-resident issues during the FY 2024-25 window, the additional methods (PWERM, OPM, replacement cost, milestone) per CBDT Notification 81/2023 are applied where relevant.
WACC is built bottom-up — Rf from 10-year G-Sec, industry beta re-levered to target D/E via Hamada, MRP from Damodaran India CRP, small-firm premium for unlisted, post-tax Kd from actual borrowing cost × (1 - Section 115BAA effective rate). Sensitivity tables on WACC and g published in the report.
Listed peers selected on business model, size, growth, margin, leverage and geography match. Median multiple applied with size-growth-margin adjustment. Outliers excluded with documented rationale. Multiples rolled forward / backward to the valuation date.
Every Business Valuation engagement delivers measurable, guaranteed outcomes — expert professionals, on time, every time.
Why this matters here — Across Koyambedu, Koyambedu's mix of hospitality retail and freight-forwarder businesses radiating from the CMBT bus terminus. Practitioners note that with direct connectivity via the Koyambedu Metro CMBT bus terminus and the Periyar EVR Salai arterial.
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Miss any of these and the next consequence kicks in automatically.
Deadlines in this neighbourhood — Across Koyambedu, Koyambedu's mix of hospitality retail and freight-forwarder businesses radiating from the CMBT bus terminus.
Deadline pressure points we see in Koyambedu: On the ground in Koyambedu, for Koyambedu wholesalers managing dense daily inventory turnover and inter-state compliance footprints.
Primary deliverable - establishes Fair Market Value of equity for Income Tax (Rule 11UA), Companies Act (Section 247), FEMA NDI, and Ind AS 113 reporting purposes; underpins board, shareholder and statutory filings.
Standalone FMV certificate evidencing that the issue price of shares to residents (and post-2023 to non-residents) does not exceed the prescribed FMV, neutralising angel-tax exposure under Section 56(2)(viib) and Section 56(2)(x).
IBBI-Registered Valuer (SFA asset class) report supporting preferential allotment under Section 62(1)(c), buy-back under Section 68, share-swap under Sections 230-232, FEMA NDI pricing, and ESOP fair value under Ind AS 102.
Every claim on this page can be traced back to a section or rule below.
Income Tax Rules 11UA Section 56(2) and Companies (Share Capital) Rules 2014 is the operative provision for business valuation in this engagement. Business valuation for M&A transfer pricing fundraising buy-back DCF NAV market multiple methods The taxpayer should ensure the procedural conditions under this section are met before any filing or submission. Failure to comply attracts the consequences separately prescribed under the penalty and interest provisions of the same Act.
Every Koyambedu engagement we open begins with the basics: PIN 600107, the Anna Nagar Division, and the coordinates 13.0708, 80.1944 that anchor the locality. Businesses registered in Koyambedu share the Chennai North jurisdiction, and their statutory matters route through the same Anna Nagar Division each time. Approvals, acknowledgements and queries for Koyambedu businesses tie back to the Anna Nagar Division, so our Valuation cadence accounts for how that office works. The 600xx geo-zone covering Koyambedu groups several locality clusters under common administration, keeping documentation expectations predictable.
Koyambedu reads as a wholesale market and transit hub pocket with high commercial activity, anchored around Koyambedu Metro and fed by the CMBT Koyambedu Bus Terminus corridor. Working in Koyambedu brings a logistical edge: proximity to Koyambedu Metro and the CMBT Koyambedu Bus Terminus corridor keeps physical document handling fast. Vendors and customers tied to the CMBT Koyambedu Bus Terminus network show up across the invoice trail we reconcile for Koyambedu Business Valuation clients. The wholesale market and transit hub mix of Koyambedu shapes what lands in our workpapers — a blend of logistics activity and the commercial pulse around Koyambedu Metro.
We have closed enough Business Valuation files for wholesale firms near Koyambedu to know where the department usually probes. Business Valuation for wholesale businesses in Koyambedu hinges on getting the sector's recurring entries right the first time. Sector concentration matters: when Koyambedu leans toward wholesale, the Valuation risks cluster around the same few line items each cycle. A wholesale operator in Koyambedu gets a Valuation workflow shaped by sector norms, not a one-size-fits-all template.
Our Koyambedu Valuation process is built to be predictable, documented, and on time, cycle after cycle. We keep a repeatable Valuation checklist for Koyambedu so nothing in the cycle is improvised or missed. Document intake for Koyambedu clients runs over WhatsApp, so there is no office visit and no paper shuffle for a Business Valuation engagement. Fixed-fee scoping means a Koyambedu business knows the Business Valuation cost up front, with no surprise additions mid-engagement.
Serving Koyambedu and Virugambakkam from one team keeps Business Valuation turnaround identical across the cluster. Businesses straddling Koyambedu and Virugambakkam get a single Valuation point of contact rather than two. A client relocating between Koyambedu and Virugambakkam keeps the same Valuation file and the same team. Group companies spread across Koyambedu and Virugambakkam consolidate their Valuation under one engagement with us.
Sector signals in Koyambedu — seasonal vegetables swings and peak-period volumes — shape how we schedule Valuation work. Each engagement in Koyambedu adds to a record of what the Chennai North jurisdiction expects, sharpening the next Valuation file. Patterns we track for Koyambedu include vegetables documentation gaps, timing mismatches, and the questions the Anna Nagar Division tends to raise. Because we work repeatedly across Koyambedu, we can benchmark a new client's Business Valuation position against the locality norm.
Relocating a registered office into Koyambedu (PIN 600107) changes the assessing division, and we handle that Business Valuation transition cleanly. A startup setting up near Koyambedu Wholesale Market in Koyambedu gets a Valuation foundation built for the Anna Nagar Division from day one. New fruits ventures in Koyambedu lean on us to stand up Business Valuation correctly before the first deadline rather than after a notice. Incorporating in Koyambedu comes with jurisdiction, registration and Valuation steps that we sequence so nothing stalls the launch.
IBBI Registered Valuer reports under Section 247 Companies Act + Rule 11UA(2) Income-tax Rules + ICAI Valuation Standards 101-303 — DCF, NAV, Comparable Companies and Comparable Transactions methods reconciled for Koyambedu clients.
DCF method with 5-10 year explicit projection, Gordon-growth or exit-multiple terminal value, WACC build-up via CAPM (Rf 7% G-Sec + β × MRP 6-8%) — Cinestaan / Rameshwaram defence applied for Section 56(2)(viib) scrutiny.
Rule 13 Companies (Share Capital and Debentures) Rules 2014 compliance — Registered Valuer report in Securities or Financial Assets class for fresh issue, buy-back under Section 68 + Section 115QA, scheme of arrangement under Sections 230-232.
Rule 21 FEMA NDI Rules 2019 Schedule I FDI / ODI pricing certificate by Merchant Banker / CA, and Section 92C transfer pricing benchmarking with Rule 10B (TNMM / CUP / RPM / CPM / PSM) and Rule 10CA Range concept.
Section 144C provides DRP route for eligible-assessees (foreign companies and TP-impact cases). On Draft Assessment Order receipt, file objections within 30 days. DRP issues directions binding on AO. Used extensively for cross-border share-valuation Rule 11UA(2) adjustments.
FEMA Pricing Guidelines require Category-I AD bank certification at arm's-length for cross-border share-transactions. Income Tax Rule 11UA prescribes FMV-methodology. Reconciliation through merchant-banker DCF aligning with FEMA-compliant valuation. Both regimes apply parallelly with potential gap creating exposure.
AO can question methodology but Daiichi Sankyo v Malvinder Singh DEL HC supports judicial deference to expert valuation absent manifest error. Section 247 Registered Valuer report under IBBI-registration carries statutory authority. Document assumptions, methodology, and comparable-transactions for defence.
Section 17(2)(vi) taxes FMV-minus-exercise-price differential as salary perquisite at exercise-date. For DPIIT-recognised eligible startup employees, Section 192(1C) defers TDS up to earliest of 48 months from AY-end, share-sale, or cessation of employment.
Rule 11UA(2)(b) investment-method specifically applies to convertible preference shares and convertible debentures factoring conversion-ratio, liquidation-preference, and dividend-rights. Merchant-banker DCF supplements with hybrid-instrument economics. NAV alone is inappropriate for convertibles.
Section 247 of Companies Act 2013 mandates IBBI-registered valuer for preferential allotment, share-capital reduction, scheme of arrangement, and slump-sale valuation. Companies (Registered Valuers and Valuation) Rules 2017 prescribe registration and conduct standards under three asset-classes.
What Koyambedu clients want to know before signing: On the ground in Koyambedu, in the Koyambedu wholesale market and transport interchange belt of west Chennai.
Reading this guide locally — Across Koyambedu, across Koyambedu's commercial corridor anchored by CMBT and the Koyambedu Metro.
The International Valuation Standards 200 series on businesses and business interests, published by the IVS Council and adopted in modified form by IBBI through Valuation Standard 102, organises business-valuation methodologies into three approaches — the income approach (discounted cash flow, capitalisation of earnings), the market approach (guideline public-company method, comparable transaction method) and the cost approach (net asset value, adjusted book value). The standards do not prescribe a single methodology but require the valuer to select methodologies appropriate to the engagement, document the selection rationale, and triangulate the outputs. CFA Institute Equity Asset Valuation chapter on private company valuation provides a parallel framework with substantially overlapping methodology lists. Aswath Damodaran's framework on private company and start-up valuation extends the cost-of-capital build-up to incorporate size premia and specific-company-risk adjustments. The Koyambedu valuation engagement should select methodologies grounded in the IVS taxonomy with explicit reference to the applicable standard.
Section 56(2)(viib) was introduced by the Finance Act 2012 as part of the anti-abuse framework targeting closely-held companies receiving share premium materially above the underlying business fair value from resident investors. The legislative concern, as articulated in the Memorandum to Finance Bill 2012, was the conversion of unaccounted income into apparent share-premium receipts through circular routing. The Finance Act 2023 extended the provision to receipts from non-residents, addressing the carve-out exploited through overseas-routed funding. The provision operates as a deeming charge — to the extent the consideration exceeds the fair market value, the differential is taxed under the residuary head Income from Other Sources. The policy framework is best understood as a valuation-anchored anti-evasion construct rather than a pure income tax, and the Koyambedu closely-held company raising funding must approach the Section 56(2)(viib) compliance through valuation rigour rather than rate optimisation.
Business valuation in the Indian context operates at the intersection of multiple statutory and regulatory frameworks, no single one of which is exhaustive. The Income-tax Act 1961 contemplates fair market value at several junctures — Section 56(2)(viib) on receipt of share premium by a closely-held company, Section 56(2)(x) on receipt of property by any person without or for inadequate consideration, Section 50CA on transfer of unlisted shares below fair market value, Section 50B read with Rule 11UAE on slump sales, and Section 92 read with Rules 10A to 10T on international and specified domestic transactions. The Companies Act 2013 through Section 247 read with the Companies (Registered Valuers and Valuation) Rules 2017 imposes a registered-valuer requirement on valuations under that Act, with the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India operating as the registering authority and issuing the Valuation Standards 101 through 103. Ind AS 113 transposes IFRS 13 Fair Value Measurement into the Indian accounting framework. The Koyambedu taxpayer or company engaging with valuation must first identify which framework governs the exercise before any methodology selection.
The IVS 200 series organises the methodology landscape into three approaches — asset (cost), income and market — rather than methodology-by-methodology. Each approach captures a distinct conceptual basis. The asset approach answers: what would it cost to recreate the business from its underlying assets. The income approach answers: what is the business worth based on the future cash flows it will generate. The market approach answers: what would a market participant pay based on prices of comparable businesses. The IBBI Valuation Standard 102 paragraph on approach selection requires the valuer to consider all three approaches and document the selection rationale, with at least two approaches applied for cross-validation in most engagements. The Koyambedu valuer should structure the report around the three approaches rather than the methodologies, supporting cross-approach triangulation in the conclusion.
Within the Income-tax Rule 11UA framework, the operational choice between Rule 11UA(1)(c)(b) book-value methodology and Rule 11UA(2) DCF methodology is consequential. Rule 11UA(1)(c)(b) is mechanical and produces a deterministic output but does not capture going-concern intangible value. Rule 11UA(2) captures going-concern value but requires merchant-banker engagement and methodology rigour. The election is per-issuance, exercisable at the time of issue. Where the closely-held company has substantial undervalued real estate or appreciated investments, Rule 11UA(1)(c)(b) with asset revaluation may produce a higher fair-value defence floor than Rule 11UA(2). Where the company is intangibles-driven with strong cash flow generation, Rule 11UA(2) is the preferred route. The Koyambedu closely-held company should compute both routes before the election to identify the higher fair-value defence floor.
The fair-value-hierarchy framework varies across accounting standards. Indian GAAP traditionally relies on historical cost with limited fair-value mechanisms (AS 13 on investments, AS 28 on impairment). Ind AS 113 transposes IFRS 13 Fair Value Measurement, introducing the three-level hierarchy — Level 1 quoted prices in active markets for identical assets, Level 2 directly or indirectly observable inputs other than Level 1 quoted prices, Level 3 unobservable inputs requiring significant judgement. IFRS 13 paragraphs 76 through 90 elaborate the hierarchy framework. The IBBI Valuation Standard 102 aligns with Ind AS 113 paragraph 93 in requiring quantitative disclosure of significant unobservable inputs. The Koyambedu valuer producing a report under a financial-reporting-driven engagement must classify the fair-value-hierarchy level explicitly and document the supporting input observability.
Section 247 of the Companies Act 2013 read with the Companies (Registered Valuers and Valuation) Rules 2017 constitutes the registered valuer framework, with the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India operating as the registering authority. The framework requires any valuation under the Companies Act, the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016, the Income-tax Act for specified purposes and the SARFAESI Act to be performed by a person registered with IBBI as a registered valuer in the relevant asset class — securities and financial assets, land and building, or plant and machinery. The registration regime mandates educational qualifications, professional experience, examination passing and continuing professional education. The Koyambedu entity engaging a valuer for any statutory purpose must verify the valuer's registration status on the IBBI portal and the relevant asset-class qualification before commissioning the engagement.
The IBBI Valuation Standards 101, 102 and 103, issued in 2018 with subsequent amendments, constitute the procedural framework binding registered valuers. Standard 101 on definitions establishes the conceptual vocabulary including fair value, market value, investment value and liquidation value. Standard 102 on valuation approaches and methods prescribes the three-approach framework (cost, income, market) with sub-methodologies and approach-selection discipline. Standard 103 on valuation report and documentation prescribes the report content, the working-paper retention requirement and the engagement-documentation framework. The standards align broadly with IVS International Valuation Standards 2017 and 2020 editions. The Koyambedu registered valuer producing any report must comply with all three standards explicitly, with the report structured around the Standard 103 content requirements.
IBBI Valuation Standard 103 paragraph on engagement requires the registered valuer to execute an engagement letter capturing the purpose of valuation, the valuation date, the standard of value, the methodology framework, the deliverables, the reliance limitations, the fee structure and the timeline. The engagement-letter discipline mirrors the IVS 101 General Standards on scope of work. The CFA Institute Equity Asset Valuation framework on private-company valuation prescribes parallel discipline. The Koyambedu engagement should commence with a detailed engagement letter executed before any valuation work, with the scope-definition tightly framed to the statutory or commercial purpose. Subsequent scope expansion should flow through formal amendment letters rather than informal communication.
Section 50CA(2) of the Income-tax Act permits the Assessing Officer to refer the valuation to the Valuation Officer under Section 50C(2) procedural framework where the actual consideration claimed by the transferor varies materially from the Rule 11UA value, or where the assessee disputes the Rule 11UA computation. The Valuation Officer conducts an independent valuation and reports back to the Assessing Officer for adoption. The framework provides a checking mechanism but does not displace the Rule 11UA anchor. The Koyambedu transferor facing a Section 50CA(2) reference should engage proactively with the Valuation Officer, providing the registered-valuer report, working papers and supporting documentation to substantiate the actual consideration as fair market value.
Section 50CA of the Income-tax Act, inserted by the Finance Act 2017 with effect from assessment year 2018-19, addresses transfer of unquoted shares for consideration less than fair market value. The provision deems the consideration to be the fair market value computed under Rule 11UA(1)(c)(b) for capital-gains computation in the transferor's hands. The provision operates as a deeming charge — the actual consideration is disregarded to the extent it falls below Rule 11UA fair market value, with the differential captured as deemed capital gain. The provision applies to all transferors (individual, HUF, firm, company), and there is no carve-out for related-party transfers below the Rule 11UA value. The Koyambedu transferor of unquoted shares must therefore price the transfer at or above the Rule 11UA(1)(c)(b) value or accept the deeming consequence in the capital-gains computation.
Section 50CA on the transferor side operates in conjunction with Section 56(2)(x) on the recipient side. Where the transfer is below fair market value, the transferor faces deemed-consideration recharacterisation under Section 50CA, and the recipient faces taxation on the differential under Section 56(2)(x) Income from Other Sources. The combination of the two provisions produces a parallel charge on both sides of the transaction, with potential aggregate-tax exposure approaching the differential itself. The Section 56(2)(x) recipient-side charge is subject to relative-transfer exemption under the proviso (transfers to relatives as defined in the Explanation), but the Section 50CA transferor-side charge has no such exemption. The Koyambedu parties to any unquoted-share transfer must run both computations and structure the transaction at fair market value to neutralise both charges.
What Koyambedu clients usually ask next: On the ground in Koyambedu, for Koyambedu wholesalers managing dense daily inventory turnover and inter-state compliance footprints.
Beta — measure of a stock's volatility relative to the market. Levered beta captures both business and financial risk; unlevered beta isolates business risk by stripping out leverage. Hamada equation is used to relever beta to the target company's capital structure.
Risk-Free Rate — yield on a default-free instrument used as the base in CAPM. In India the 10-year G-Sec yield is the conventional proxy, typically 6.8%-7.4% as on recent valuation dates.
Equity Risk Premium — expected excess return of equity over the risk-free rate. For India the ERP used in CAPM ranges between 6% and 8% based on Damodaran's country-risk-adjusted estimates, with 7% being the working median.
Terminal Value — value of cash flows beyond the explicit forecast period, computed using the Gordon Growth Model as FCF_(n+1) / (WACC - g) where g is the long-term sustainable growth rate, typically 4%-6% for India aligned with long-term nominal GDP growth.
Enterprise Value to EBITDA multiple — relative-valuation multiple commonly applied in Comparable Companies Analysis. Indian listed mid-cap median trades at 10x-14x; high-growth sectors like SaaS at 20x-30x.
Enterprise Value to Sales multiple — used where EBITDA is negative or volatile, typical in early-stage businesses and SaaS. Indian SaaS comparables trade at 4x-8x forward revenue.
Price-to-Earnings ratio — equity-value multiple computed as market price per share divided by earnings per share. Nifty 50 median P/E hovers around 22x-25x; sector spreads vary widely.
Price-to-Book ratio — equity-value multiple computed as market price per share divided by book value per share. Useful for banks and capital-intensive sectors where book value is meaningful.
Comparable Companies Analysis — relative-valuation approach using trading multiples (EV/EBITDA, EV/Sales, P/E) of listed peer companies. Requires careful screening for size, growth, profitability, and geography to ensure functional comparability.
Precedent Transaction Analysis — relative-valuation approach using multiples observed in recent M&A transactions of similar businesses. Typically includes a control premium since transactions involve change-of-control, unlike CCA which uses minority-stake market prices.
Net Asset Value — book-based valuation method where equity value equals total assets minus total liabilities. Rule 11UA(1)(c)(b) prescribes book-NAV for unquoted equity in non-DCF contexts. Conservative floor for distress and holding-company valuations.
Discount for Lack of Marketability (DLOM) — reduction applied to the value of unlisted-company shares to reflect the absence of a ready market for sale. Indian valuation practice typically applies 20%-30% DLOM; ICAI Valuation Standard 103 governs.
Numerical examples showing tax + interest + penalty across common default scenarios.
How Koyambedu businesses typically avoid these: On the ground in Koyambedu, the dense wholesale activity across the Koyambedu Vegetable Fruit and Flower markets with integrated cold-storage and inter-state logistics; for Koyambedu wholesalers managing dense daily inventory turnover and inter-state compliance footprints.
How the local trade mix shapes this — Across Koyambedu, the dense wholesale activity across the Koyambedu Vegetable Fruit and Flower markets with integrated cold-storage and inter-state logistics.
Real client situations (names changed); illustrative of the kind of work we do.
Why these Koyambedu engagements look the way they do: On the ground in Koyambedu, the cluster of restaurant chains hotels and CMDA-developed commercial blocks along Periyar EVR Salai and 100ft Road; for Koyambedu wholesalers managing dense daily inventory turnover and inter-state compliance footprints.
“Filed a preferential allotment of ₹14 crore at our SaaS company and FilingPro's Registered Valuer prepared the Rule 11UA(2) DCF report. Five-year projection, WACC of 18.4% with industry beta re-levered to our D/E, sensitivity grid disclosed. ROC and our investor's diligence team accepted without queries.”
“Buy-back of ₹6 crore under Section 68 — needed a defensible price. The team prepared NAV plus comparable-companies cross-check, included DLOM 22%, and walked our independent directors through the workings. Section 115QA buy-back tax computed correctly for the pre-1-October-2024 window.”
“Inbound FDI from a Singapore parent. Got the FEMA NDI Schedule I pricing certificate done with DCF + comparable companies — RBI single-master-form filing went through cleanly. Fair pricing opinion delivered in 9 working days.”
“Family share transfer at ₹100 per share when book value was ₹260. Section 50CA + Rule 11UAA workings prepared with full Excel model, transferee's Section 56(2)(x) exposure also documented. Defended at ITAT scrutiny — assessment dropped.”
“ESOP perquisite valuation for an unlisted entity at exercise — Black-Scholes done with peer-derived volatility and 4.2-year expected life. Section 192 TDS computed correctly and the perquisite booked under Section 17(2)(vi). DPIIT-recognised startup deferral under Section 192(1C) also evaluated.”
“Scheme of demerger under Sections 230-232 with NCLT — share-exchange ratio defended via NAV + DCF + market-price triangulation, fairness opinion separately obtained from Merchant Banker. NCLT did not raise a single valuation query during sanction hearing.”
Common questions from Koyambedu clients. Call 9566-068-468 for specific queries.
From Kaliamman Koil Street, Golden George Ratham Salai, Justice Rathnavel Pandian Road, Link Road and Nerkundram Road through to Padikuppam Road, Perumal Koil Street, Reddy Street and EVR Periyar Salai, our team covers Valuation for businesses right across Koyambedu and its main commercial roads.
Professional Business Valuation in Koyambedu, Chennai. Call @ 9566-068-468. Offices at Maduravoyal, Nerkundram & Nolambur (upcoming). 15+ years experience, 4.9★ rated.
FilingPro Chennai — 15+ Years of Expert Tax & Business Consulting. Offices at Maduravoyal, Nerkundram & Nolambur (upcoming), Chennai. Call @ 9566-068-468. Disclaimer: Information on this page is for general guidance only and does not constitute legal, financial or tax advice. Consult a qualified professional for specific advice.